Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma
The Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma are two federally recognized Native American nations whose territories and historical homelands encompassed vast regions of the Great Plains, including present-day Colorado, Wyoming, Oklahoma, and Kansas. Though their primary tribal headquarters and reservation lands are located in Oklahoma, the Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples maintain deep historical and cultural connections to Colorado, where both nations originated and developed their distinctive cultures for centuries before forced removal in the nineteenth century. The two tribes have maintained a government-to-government relationship with the United States and continue to govern their respective nations through sovereign tribal institutions. Today, the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma represent thousands of enrolled members living in Oklahoma and across the United States, preserving language, traditions, and historical memory of their ancestral territories in the Rocky Mountain region and the High Plains.[1]
History
The Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples developed as distinct tribal nations over centuries of residence in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain regions. Archaeological and ethnographic evidence indicates that the Cheyenne migrated westward from the Great Lakes region during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, eventually settling in present-day Colorado, Wyoming, and the surrounding plains. The Arapaho similarly migrated to the central Great Plains and developed a closely aligned culture with the Cheyenne, establishing trade relationships, military alliances, and intermarriage that bound the two nations closely together. Both tribes became skilled equestrian hunters and warriors following the introduction of horses to the North American continent, developing sophisticated societies organized around buffalo hunting, seasonal movement, and spiritual practices tied to the natural cycles of the plains. The nineteenth century brought profound disruption to both nations as European American settlement expanded into their territories. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 and subsequent agreements attempted to define tribal boundaries and establish peaceful coexistence, but these agreements were systematically violated by settlers and the U.S. government.
The 1860s marked the most devastating period in Cheyenne and Arapaho history. The Sand Creek Massacre of November 29, 1864, resulted in the killing of over 150 Cheyenne and Arapaho people, primarily women, children, and elderly, by Colorado volunteer militia under the command of Colonel John Chivington. This massacre, perpetrated against a peaceful encampment that believed itself under U.S. government protection, became one of the defining traumas in tribal memory and catalyzed continued conflict. Following the Sand Creek Massacre and subsequent wars on the Great Plains, the Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples were forced onto reservations in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) through military campaigns and broken treaties. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 assigned Northern Cheyenne to the Tongue River Reservation in Montana, while Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples were relocated to a reservation in Oklahoma. Despite their geographic separation and removal from ancestral Colorado lands, both tribes maintained cultural and familial connections across regional boundaries. Throughout the twentieth century, the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma developed complex tribal governments and institutions within the constraints of the reservation system and federal Indian policy.[2]
Culture
The Cheyenne and Arapaho maintain distinctive cultural practices rooted in their historical experience as Great Plains peoples and shaped by centuries of spiritual and social traditions. Language preservation remains a central cultural priority for both tribes, though decades of government policies suppressing Native languages created significant challenges. The Cheyenne language belongs to the Algonquian language family and possesses a complex grammatical structure reflecting the sophistication of traditional Cheyenne culture. The Arapaho language similarly belongs to the Algonquian family and retains many archaic linguistic features that scholars recognize as significant for understanding historical linguistics and cultural identity. Both tribes operate language immersion programs and educational initiatives to revitalize linguistic knowledge among younger generations, recognizing language as fundamental to cultural continuity and spiritual practice.
Spiritual traditions and ceremonial practices remain central to Cheyenne and Arapaho identity and community life. The Sun Dance ceremony, performed annually by both tribes, represents one of the most sacred and significant religious observances, involving fasting, ritual sacrifice, and community renewal. The Cheyenne maintain the Sacred Arrows and the Sacred Buffalo Hat as sacred objects central to tribal spiritual identity and governance; these objects are housed at the Cheyenne Cultural Center and represent the spiritual foundation of the nation. The Arapaho maintain their own sacred traditions and ceremonial calendars that mark seasonal and spiritual cycles. Both tribes practice traditional crafts including beadwork, hide tanning, and regalia creation, with distinctive artistic styles that reflect each nation's aesthetic traditions. Contemporary tribal members engage in powwows, cultural demonstrations, and educational programs that transmit cultural knowledge and maintain connection to ancestral traditions. Art, music, and dance continue to flourish within tribal communities, adapting to modern contexts while maintaining historical authenticity and spiritual significance.[3]
Economy
The Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma maintain a mixed economy incorporating tribal enterprises, individual employment, natural resource revenue, and federal trust responsibilities. Historically, the tribes depended on buffalo hunting and trading as primary economic activities until the late nineteenth century, when forced settlement on reservations required adaptation to agricultural and pastoral economies. Contemporary tribal economies incorporate gaming operations, which have become significant revenue sources for tribal governments and programs. The Cheyenne and Arapaho operate gaming facilities that generate funding for tribal services, healthcare, education, and infrastructure development. Like many federally recognized tribes, the Cheyenne and Arapaho manage trust lands and natural resources, including timber and mineral resources that provide ongoing revenue streams. Agricultural operations continue on tribal and individual allotted lands, though agricultural productivity remains constrained by land quality and climate factors.
Employment and business development remain priorities for both tribal nations as they work to reduce poverty and create economic opportunity for tribal members. The tribes operate various business enterprises including hospitality services, retail operations, and service industries that provide employment to tribal and non-tribal workers. Federal trust responsibility creates unique relationships with the U.S. government regarding healthcare, education, and social services, with funding allocated through federal agencies and tribal appropriations. Economic development initiatives focus on sustainable development that respects cultural values and environmental stewardship. Tourism related to historical sites, cultural events, and pow-wows generates supplementary revenue and creates opportunities to share tribal history and culture with broader audiences. Both tribes continue to work toward economic self-determination while maintaining connection to traditional lifeways and values that prioritize community welfare over pure profit maximization.
Notable People
The Cheyenne and Arapaho nations have produced leaders, activists, scholars, and cultural figures who have shaped tribal history and contributed to broader American discourse on Native American rights and sovereignty. Chief Black Kettle (c. 1803–1868), a Cheyenne leader who survived the Sand Creek Massacre, became a symbol of resistance and resilience, advocating for his people despite devastating losses. The massacre marked him indelibly, yet he continued seeking peaceful resolution and protection for his band until his death in another military attack at the Washita River in 1868. Contemporary tribal leaders, historians, and cultural practitioners have worked to document tribal history, preserve languages, and advocate for tribal sovereignty and historical recognition. These figures operate within various spheres including tribal government, academia, activism, and cultural education. The Sand Creek Massacre and its aftermath brought many Cheyenne and Arapaho names into historical record, including survivors and family members whose descendants continue tribal traditions today.
Modern Cheyenne and Arapaho individuals have achieved prominence in various professional fields while maintaining tribal affiliation and cultural identity. Tribal historians and scholars have published important works documenting tribal history and challenging dominant historical narratives. Artists, musicians, and performers continue traditions of cultural expression while engaging contemporary audiences. Educational leaders within tribal schools and universities work to develop culturally appropriate curricula that honor tribal knowledge systems. Activists and advocates have worked on historical recognition projects, including efforts to commemorate the Sand Creek Massacre and challenge historical erasure of tribal perspectives. The tribes continue to recognize and celebrate members who contribute to tribal welfare, cultural preservation, and external advocacy on behalf of tribal interests and sovereignty.
Attractions and Historical Significance
Though the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma maintain their primary institutional presence in Oklahoma, their historical presence in Colorado remains culturally and politically significant. The Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, established to commemorate the 1864 massacre, represents one of the most important historical sites related to Cheyenne and Arapaho history. The site attracts visitors seeking to understand this pivotal historical event and its ongoing significance in tribal memory and American history. The Cheyenne Cultural Center in Oklahoma, while located outside Colorado, houses sacred objects and artifacts significant to understanding Cheyenne history and culture during their historical occupation of Colorado territories. Historical markers, museums, and educational institutions throughout Colorado preserve and interpret Cheyenne and Arapaho history, helping broader audiences understand the complex history of Native American peoples in the Rocky Mountain region. The territories encompassing present-day Colorado, Wyoming, and the High Plains represent ancestral homelands where the Cheyenne and Arapaho developed their distinctive cultures and maintained their nations for centuries before forced removal. Contemporary efforts to preserve, commemorate, and teach this history represent an important component of historical recognition and reconciliation between the tribes and the broader Colorado community.